Tu-154
November 5th, 2008
The Tu-154 was developed to meet the Aeroflot requirement for a new aircraft to replace the jet-powered Tu-104, plus the Antonov An-10 'Ukraine' and Ilyushin Il-18 turboprops. It competed against the Ilyushin Il-62. The Soviet Ministry of Aircraft Industry picked the Tu-154 because it incorporated the latest in Soviet aircraft design and best met Aeroflot's anticipated requirements of the 1970s and 1980s. The aircraft was to transport a payload of 16 to 18 tons (35,270 to 39,680 lb) over a distance of 2,850 - 4,000 km (1,770 - 2,480 mi) while cruising at a speed of 900 km/h, or a payload of 5.8 tons (12,790 lb) over a distance of 5,800 - 7,000 km (3,600 - 4,350 mi) while cruising at 850 km/h (528 mph). It also had to be able to operate from airfields as short as 2,600 m (8,530 ft) at maximum take-off weight
The first project chief was Sergey M. Yerger. In 1964 Dimitriy S. Markov assumed that position. In 1975 he turned it over to Aleksandr S. Shengardt.
The Tu-154 first flew on October 4, 1968. Commercial service began in February 1972, and production ended in 2006. About 900 Tu-154s have been built, 500 of which are still in service.
In 1988 a modified Tu-154 (dubbed Tu-155 and Tu-156) successfully flew on liquid hydrogen and in 1989 on liquified natural gas used as a fuel in its engines.
The Tu-154 is powered by three rear-mounted low-bypass turbofan engines arranged similarly to those of the Boeing 727, and is slightly larger than its American counterpart. The original model had Kuznetsov NK-8-2, while the Tu-154M has Soloviev D-30KU-154s. All Tu-154 aircraft models have a higher thrust-to-weight ratio than that of the 727 – this gives them superior performance, although at the expense of poorer fuel efficiency, which became an important factor in later decades as fuel costs grew.
The cabin of the Tu-154, although of the same six-abreast seating layout, gives the impression of an oval interior, with a lower ceiling than is common on western airliners (Boeing or Airbus). The passenger doors are also smaller than on the Tu-154's western counterparts. Furthermore, luggage space in the overhead compartments is very limited.
Like the Tupolev Tu-134, the Tu-154 has a wing swept back at 35 degrees at the quarter-chord line. The British Hawker Siddeley Trident has the same sweepback angle, while the Boeing 727 has a slightly smaller sweepback angle of 32 degrees.
Like many other Soviet-built airliners, the Tu-154 has an oversized landing gear enabling it to land on unpaved runways, once common in rural areas of the Soviet Union. The aircraft has two six-wheel main bogies fitted with large low-pressure tyres that retract into pods extending from the trailing edges of the wings (a common Tupolev feature), plus a two-wheel nose gear unit. Soft oleo struts (shock absorbers) provide much smoother ride on the bumpy airfields than Western airliners, which only very rarely operate on such poor surfaces.
The passenger cabin accommodates 128 passengers in two-class layout and 164 passengers in single-class layout, and up to 180 passengers in high-density layout. The layout can be modified to what is called a winterized version where some seats are taken out and a wardrobe is installed for passenger coats.
The original requirement was to have a 3 man flight crew - Captain, First Officer and Flight Engineer - as opposed to 4 or 5 man crew on other Soviet airliners. However, a fourth crew member, a navigator, is usually also present, at least in the former Soviet Union, due to the union rules. Navigators are no longer trained and this profession will become obsolete with the retirement of older Soviet planes.
The plane's avionics suite, for the first time in the Soviet Union, is built to Western airworthiness standards. It includes an NVU-B3 doppler navigation system, a triple autopilot, which provides an automatic ILS approach according to ICAO category II weather minima, an autothrottle, a Doppler drift and speed measure system (DISS), "Kurs-MP" radio navigation suite and others. Modern upgrades normally include a TCAS, GPS and other modern systems, mostly Western-made.
The earlier versions of Tu-154 cannot be modified to meet the current Stage III noise regulations, and therefore are banned to fly in Europe and other regions, where such regulations are in force. The Tu-154M, however, can be hush-kitted to meet the Stage III regulations. Theoretically, it can be hush-kitted to meet the formal Stage IV noise regulations. However, the current European Union directives prohibit to hush kit aircraft to meet Stage IV noise levels. Unless the TU-154M is re-engined, which will require extensive modifications that can be astronomically expensive, it is unlikely that Tu-154 will continue operating in the EU with Stage IV regulations in force.
There have been 62 serious flight incidents with TU-154s, including 36 crashes with human fatalities. Six of those incidents have resulted from terrorist or military action and several from poor runway conditions, including one which struck snow ploughs left on the runway. Others incidents have resulted from mechanical problems, piloting errors, cargo fires, and faulty air traffic control. After the TU-154 had been in service for 26 years and logged some 21 million flight hours (1998), it had a better than average safety record measured as 1.7 times fewer incidents than the world ICAO average at that time.
The TU-154 can easily be called a Russian legend.
C-130 Hercules
June 1st, 2008
Capable of short takeoffs and landings from unprepared runways, the C-130 was originally designed as a troop, medical evacuation and cargo transport aircraft. The versatile airframe has found uses in a variety of other roles, including as a gunship, and for airborne assault, search and rescue, scientific research support, weather reconnaissance, aerial refuelling and aerial firefighting. The Hercules family has the longest continuous production run of any military aircraft in history. During more than 50 years of service the family has participated in military, civilian and humanitarian aid operations.
The Korean War, which began in June, 1950, showed that World War II-era transports—C-119 Flying Boxcars, C-47 Skytrains and C-46 Commandos—were inadequate for modern warfare. Thus, on February 2, 1951, the United States Air Force issued a General Operating Requirement (GOR) for a new transport to Boeing, Douglas, Fairchild, Lockheed, Martin, Chase Aircraft, North American Northrop, and Airlifts Inc. The new transport would have a capacity for 92 passengers, 72 combat troops or 64 paratroopers, a range of 1,100 nautical miles (2,000 km), takeoff capability from short and unprepared strips, and the ability to fly with one engine shut down.
Fairchild, North American, Martin and Northrop declined to participate. The remaining five companies tendered a total of ten designs: Lockheed two, Boeing one, Chase three, Douglas three, Airlifts Inc one. The contest was a close affair between the lighter of the two Lockheed (preliminary project designation L-206) proposals and a four-turboprop Douglas design. The Lockheed design team was led by Willis Hawkins starting with a 130 page proposal for the Lockheed L-206 and another two-turboprop and heavier one. Hall Hibbard, Lockheed vice president and chief engineer, saw the proposal and directed it to Kelly Johnson, who remarked when he saw the proposal, "If you sign that letter, you will destroy the Lockheed Company." Both Hibbard and Johnson signed the proposal and the company won the contract for the now-designated Model 82 on July 2, 1951.
In the 1970s Lockheed proposed a C-130 variant with turbofan engines rather than turboprops, but the US Air Force preferred the takeoff performance of the existing aircraft. In the 1980s the C-130 was intended to be replaced by the Advanced Medium STOL Transport project. The project was canceled and the C-130 has remained in production.
The Hercules holds the record for the largest and heaviest aircraft to land on an aircraft carrier. In October and November 1963, a USMC KC-130F (BuNo 149798), bailed to the US Naval Air Test Center, made 21 unarrested landings and take-offs on the USS Forrestal at a number of different weights. The pilot, LT (later RADM) James Flatley III, USN, was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his participation. The tests were highly successful, but the idea was considered too risky for routine "Carrier Onboard Delivery" (COD) operations. Instead, the C-2 Greyhound was developed as a dedicated COD aircraft. (The Hercules used in the test, most recently in service with Marine Aerial Refueler Squadron 352 (VMGR-352) until 2005, is now part of the collection of the National Museum of Naval Aviation at NAS Pensacola, Florida.)
While the C-130 is involved in cargo and resupply operations daily, it has been a part of some notable offensive operations:
The MC-130 Combat Talon variant carries and deploys what are currently the world's largest conventional bombs, the BLU-82 "Daisy Cutter" and GBU-43/B Massive Ordnance Air Blast bomb, also known as the MOAB. Daisy Cutters were used during the Vietnam War to clear landing zones for helicopters and to eliminate minefields and have recently even been proposed for anti-personnel use. The weight and size of the weapons make it impossible or impractical to load them on conventional bombers. The GBU-43/B MOAB is a successor to the BLU-82 and can perform the same function, as well as perform strike functions against hardened targets in a low air threat environment.
In the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, the Pakistan Air Force modified/improvised several aircraft for use as heavy bombers, and attacks were made on enemy bridges and troop concentrations with some notable successes. No aircraft were lost in the operations, though one was slightly damaged.
It was also used in the 1976 Entebbe raid in which Israeli commando forces carried a surprise assault to rescue 103 passengers of an airliner hijacked by Palestinian and German terrorists at Entebbe Airport, Uganda. The rescue force — 200 soldiers, jeeps, and a black Mercedes-Benz (intended to resemble Ugandan Dictator Idi Amin's vehicle of state) — was flown 4,000 kilometres (2,160 nmi) from Israel to Entebbe by five Israeli Air Force (IAF) Hercules aircraft without mid-air refueling (on the way back, the planes refueled in Nairobi, Kenya).
During the Falklands War of 1982, Argentine Air Force C-130s undertook highly dangerous, daily re-supply flights to the Argentine garrison on the Falkland Islands (Malvinas). Only one was lost during the war. Argentina also operated two KC-130s refuellers during the war, and these refueled the Skyhawk attack planes which sank the British frigate HMS Antelope. The British also used their C-130s to support their logistical operations.
During the Gulf War of 1991, the C-130 Hercules was used operationally by the US Air Force, US Navy and US Marine Corps, and the air forces of Australia, New Zealand, Saudi Arabia, South Korea and the UK.
During the invasion of Afghanistan and in support of the International Security Assistance Force, the C-130 Hercules was used operationally by Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, Italy, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, South Korea, Spain, the UK and the United States.
During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the C-130 Hercules was used operationally by Australia, the UK and the United States. After the initial invasion, C-130 operators as part of the Multinational force in Iraq used their C-130s to support their forces in Iraq.
Even though the C-130 is used mostly at war campaings, which most people won't appreciate, this big cargo monster also helps to deliver goods in large amounts to places, where disasters took place. And it helps a lot!
Airbus A380
April 5th, 2008
The A380's upper deck extends along the entire length of the fuselage. This allows for a cabin with 50% more floor space than the next-largest airliner, the Boeing 747-400, and provides seating for 525 people in standard three-class configuration or up to 853 people in all economy class configuration. The A380 is offered in passenger and freighter versions. The A380-800, the passenger model, is the largest passenger airliner in the world, superseding the Boeing 747, but has a shorter fuselage than the Airbus A340-600 which is Airbus' next biggest passenger aeroplane. The A380-800F, the freighter model, is offered as one of the largest freight aircraft, with a listed payload capacity exceeded only by the Antonov An-225. The A380-800 has a design range of 15,200 kilometres (8,200 nmi), sufficient to fly from New York to Hong Kong for example, and a cruising speed of Mach 0.85 (about 900 km/h or 560 mph at cruise altitude).
Airbus started the development of a very large airliner (termed Megaliner by Airbus in the early development stages) in the early 1990s, both to complete its own range of products and to break the dominance that Boeing had enjoyed in this market segment since the early 1970s with its 747. McDonnell Douglas pursued a similar strategy with its ultimately unsuccessful MD-12 design. As each manufacturer looked to build a successor to the 747, they knew there was room for only one new aircraft to be profitable in the 600 to 800 seat market segment. Each knew the risk of splitting such a niche market, as had been demonstrated by the simultaneous debut of the Lockheed L-1011 and the McDonnell Douglas DC-10: both planes met the market’s needs, but the market could profitably sustain only one model, eventually resulting in Lockheed's departure from the civil airliner business. In January 1993, Boeing and several companies in the Airbus consortium started a joint feasibility study of an aircraft known as the Very Large Commercial Transport (VLCT), aiming to form a partnership to share the limited market.
In June 1994, Airbus began developing its own very large airliner, designated the A3XX. Airbus considered several designs, including an odd side-by-side combination of two fuselages from the A340, which was Airbus’s largest jet at the time. The A3XX was pitted against the VLCT study and Boeing’s own New Large Aircraft successor to the 747, which evolved into the 747X, a stretched version of the 747 with the fore body "hump" extended rearwards to accommodate more passengers. The joint VLCT effort ended in July 1996, and Boeing suspended the 747X program in January 1997. From 1997 to 2000, as the East Asian financial crisis darkened the market outlook, Airbus refined its design, targeting a 15 to 20 percent reduction in operating costs over the existing Boeing 747-400. The A3XX design converged on a double-decker layout that provided more passenger volume than a traditional single-deck design. On 19 December 2000, the supervisory board of newly restructured Airbus voted to launch a €8.8 billion program to build the A3XX, re-christened as the A380, with 55 orders from six launch customers. The A380 designation was a break from previous Airbus families, which had progressed sequentially from A300 to A340. It was chosen because the number 8 resembles the double-deck cross section, and is a lucky number in some Asian countries where the aircraft was being marketed. The aircraft’s final configuration was frozen in early 2001, and manufacturing of the first A380 wing box component started on 23 January 2002. The development cost of the A380 had grown to €11 billion when the first aircraft was completed.
Boeing, meanwhile, resurrected the 747X programme several times before finally launching the 747-8 Intercontinental in November 2005 (with entry into service planned for 2009). Boeing chose to develop a derivative for the 400 to 500 seat market, instead of matching the A380's capacity.
Five A380s were built for testing and demonstration purposes.
The first A380, serial number MSN001 and registration F-WWOW, was unveiled at a ceremony in Toulouse on 18 January 2005. Its maiden flight took place at 8:29 UTC (10:29 a.m. local time) 27 April 2005. This plane, equipped with Trent 900 engines, flew from Toulouse Blagnac International Airport with a flight crew of six headed by chief test pilot Jacques Rosay. After successfully landing three hours and 54 minutes later, Rosay said flying the A380 had been “like handling a bicycle†.
On 1 December 2005 the A380 achieved its maximum design speed of Mach 0.96 (versus normal cruising speed of Mach 0.85), in a shallow dive, completing the opening of the flight envelope.
On 10 January 2006 the A380 made its first transatlantic flight to MedellÃn in Colombia, to test engine performance at a high altitude airport. It arrived in North America on 6 February, landing in Iqaluit, Nunavut in Canada for cold-weather testing.
On 14 February 2006, during the destructive wing strength certification test on MSN5000, the test wing of the A380 failed at 145% of the limit load, short of the required 150% to meet the certification. Airbus announced modifications adding 30 kg to the wing to provide the required strength.
On 26 March 2006 the A380 underwent evacuation certification in Hamburg in Germany. With 8 of the 16 exits blocked, 853 passengers and 20 crew left the aircraft in 78 seconds, less than the 90 seconds required by certification standards. Three days later, the A380 received European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) and United States Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) approval to carry up to 853 passengers.
The maiden flight of the first A380 using GP7200 engines - serial number MSN009 and registration F-WWEA - took place on 25 August 2006.
On 4 September 2006 the first full passenger-carrying flight test took place. The aircraft flew from Toulouse with 474 Airbus employees on board, in the first of a series of flights to test passenger facilities and comfort.
In November 2006, a further series of route proving flights took place to demonstrate the aircraft's performance for 150 flight hours under typical airline operating conditions.
Airbus obtained type certificate for the A380-841 and A380-842 model from the EASA and FAA on 12 December 2006 in a joint ceremony at the company's French headquarters. The A380-861 model obtained the type certificate 14 December 2007.
As of February 2008, the five A380s in the test programme had logged over 4,565 hours during 1,364 flights, including route proving and demonstration flights.
Airbus used similar cockpit layout, procedures and handling characteristics to those of other Airbus aircraft, to reduce crew training costs. Accordingly, the A380 features an improved glass cockpit, and fly-by-wire flight controls linked to side-sticks. The improved cockpit displays feature eight 15-by-20 cm (6-by-8-inch) liquid crystal displays, all of which are physically identical and interchangeable. These comprise two Primary Flight Displays, two navigation displays, one engine parameter display, one system display and two Multi-Function Displays. These MFDs are new with the A380, and provide an easy-to-use interface to the flight management system—replacing three multifunction control and display units. They include QWERTY keyboards and trackballs, interfacing with a graphical "point-and-click" display navigation system. One or two HUD (Head Up Display) is optional.
The A380 can be fitted with two different types of engines: A380-841, A380-842 and A380-843F with Rolls-Royce Trent 900, and the A380-861 and A380-863F with Engine Alliance GP7000 turbofans. The Trent 900 is a derivative of the Trent 800, and the GP7000 has roots from the GE90 and PW4000. The Trent 900 core is a scaled version of the Trent 500, but incorporates the swept fan technology of the stillborn Trent 8104. The GP7200 has a GE90-derived core and PW4090-derived fan and low-pressure turbo-machinery. Only two of the four engines are fitted with thrust reversers.
Noise reduction was an important requirement in the A380's design, and particularly affects engine design. Both engine types allow the aircraft to achieve QC/2 departure and QC/0.5 arrival noise limits under the Quota Count system set by London Heathrow Airport, which is expected to become a key destination for the A380.
The A380 can run on mixed synthetic jet fuel with a natural-gas-derived component. A three hour test flight on Friday, February 1, 2008 between the Airbus company facility at Filton in the UK to the main Airbus factory in Toulouse, France, was a success. One of the A380's four engines used a mix of 60 percent standard jet kerosene and 40 percent gas to liquids (GTL) fuel. The aircraft needed no modification to use the GTL fuel, which was designed to be mixed with regular jet fuel. Sebastien Remy, head of Airbus SAS's alternative fuel program, said the GTL used was no cleaner in CO2 terms than regular fuel but it had local air quality benefits because it contains no sulphur.
Power-by-wire flight control actuators are used for the first time in civil service, backing up the primary hydraulic flight control actuators. During certain maneuvers, they augment the primary actuators. They have self-contained hydraulic and electrical power supplies. They are used as electro-hydrostatic actuators (EHA) in the aileron and elevator, and as electrical backup hydrostatic actuators (EBHA) for the rudder and some spoilers.
The aircraft's 350 bar (35 MPa or 5,000 psi) hydraulic system is an improvement over the typical 210 bar (21 MPa or 3,000 psi) system found in other commercial aircraft since the 1940s. First used in military aircraft, higher pressure hydraulics reduce the size of pipelines, actuators and other components for overall weight reduction. The 350 bar pressure is generated by eight de-clutchable hydraulic pumps. Pipelines are typically made from titanium and the system features both fuel and air-cooled heat exchangers. The hydraulics system architecture also differs significantly from other airliners. Self-contained electrically powered hydraulic power packs, instead of a secondary hydraulic system, are the backups for the primary systems. This saves weight and reduces maintenance.
The A380 uses four 150 kVA variable-frequency electrical generators eliminating the constant speed drives for better reliability. The A380 uses aluminium power cables instead of copper for greater weight savings due to the number of cables used for an aircraft of this size and complexity. The electrical power system is fully computerized and many contactors and breakers have been replaced by solid-state devices for better performance and increased reliability.
The A380 features a bulbless illumination system. LEDs are employed in the cabin, cockpit, cargo and other fuselage areas. The cabin lighting features programmable multi-spectral LEDs capable of creating a cabin ambience simulating daylight, night or shades in between. On the outside of the aircraft, HID lighting is used to give brighter, whiter and better quality illumination. These two technologies provide brightness and a service life superior to traditional incandescent light bulbs.
The A380 was initially planned without thrust reversers, as Airbus believed it to have ample braking capacity. The FAA disagreed, and Airbus elected to fit only the two inboard engines with them. The two outboard engines do not have reversers, reducing the amount of debris stirred up during landing. The A380 features electrically actuated thrust reversers, giving them better reliability than their pneumatic or hydraulic equivalents, in addition to saving weight.
The A380 produces 50% less cabin noise than a 747 and has higher cabin air pressure (equivalent to an altitude of 1500 metres (5000 feet) versus 2500 metres (8000 feet)); both features are expected to reduce the effects of travel fatigue. The upper and lower decks are connected by two stairways, fore and aft, wide enough to accommodate two passengers side-by-side. In a 555-passenger configuration, the A380 has 33% more seats than a 747-400 in a standard three-class configuration but 50% more cabin area and volume, resulting in more space per passenger. Its maximum certified carrying capacity is 853 passengers in an all-economy-class configuration.
Compared to a 747, the A380 has larger windows and overhead bins, and 60 cm (2 feet) of extra headroom. The wider cabin allows for 48 cm (19 inch) wide economy seats instead of 43 cm (17 inch) seats on a 747, although the seat pitch of 81 cm (32 inch) is the same as that on a 747. Singapore Airline's economy-class seats feature 27 cm (10.6 inch) LCD screens in each seatback, as well as an AC power supply in most seats; business-class seats are 84 cm (34 inches) wide, can lie flat for sleeping, and have 39 cm (15.4 inch) LCD screens.
Airbus' initial publicity stressed the comfort and space of the A380's cabin, anticipating installations such as relaxation areas, bars, duty-free shops, and beauty salons. Virgin Atlantic Airways already offers a bar as part of its "Upper Class" service on its A340 and 747 aircraft, and has announced plans to include casinos, double beds, and gymnasiums on its A380s. Singapore Airlines offers twelve fully-enclosed first-class suites on its A380, each with one full and one secondary seat, full-sized bed, desk, personal storage, and 58-cm (23-inch) LCD screen at a 20% to 25% price premium over standard first class seating. Four of these suites are in the form of two "double" suites featuring a double bed. Emirates has not yet revealed their front-end A380 product although Qantas Airways has shown their product which features a long flat-bed that converts from the seat but does not have privacy doors.
Airbus top sales executive and COO John Leahy confirmed the plans for an enlarged variant, the A380-900 which is a slight stretch of the A380-800. This version would have a seat capacity of 650 passengers in standard configuration, and around 900 passengers in economy-only configuration. The development of the A380-900 is planned to start once production of the A380-800 variant reaches 40 planes per year, expected to be in 2010. Given this timeline, the first A380-900s could be delivered to customers around 2015 at about the same time as the freighter variant A380-800F. Airlines, including Emirates, Virgin Atlantic, Cathay Pacific, and Qantas, along with leasing company ILFC have already expressed great interest in the extended model. According to an interview in Airliner World magazine's December issue, Singapore Airlines CEO Chew Choon Seng revealed at the delivery of their first A380-800 that the airline is keeping their options open with their order, by only defining their first ten A380s as -800s; the remaining nine aircraft could be switched to -900s.
C17 Globemaster Cargo Aircraft
April 5th, 2008
The Boeing (formerly McDonnell Douglas) C-17 Globemaster III is an American strategic airlifter manufactured by Boeing Integrated Defense Systems, and operated by the United States Air Force, British Royal Air Force, the Royal Australian Air Force, and the Canadian Forces Air Command. NATO also has plans to acquire the airlifter.
The C-17 Globemaster III is capable of rapid strategic delivery of troops and all types of cargo to main operating bases or directly to forward bases in the deployment area. It is also capable of performing tactical airlift, medical evacuation and airdrop missions. The C-17 takes its name from two previous United States cargo aircraft, the C-74 Globemaster and the C-124 Globemaster II.
In the 1970s, the US Air Force began looking for a replacement for the C-130 Hercules tactical airlifter. The Advanced Medium STOL Transport (AMST) competition was held, with Boeing proposing the YC-14, and McDonnell Douglas proposing the YC-15. Despite both entrants exceeding specified requirements, the AMST competition was canceled before a winner had been selected.
By the early 1980s, the USAF found itself with a large fleet of aging C-141 Starlifter cargo aircraft. Some of the C-141s had major structural problems due to heavy use. Compounding matters, USAF historically never possessed sufficient strategic airlift capabilities to fulfill its airlift requirements. In response, McDonnell Douglas elected to develop a new aircraft using the YC-15 as the basis. McDonnell Douglas was awarded a contract to build its proposed aircraft, by then designated the C-17A Globemaster III, on August 28, 1981. The new aircraft differed in having swept wings, increased size, and more powerful engines. This would allow it to perform all work performed by the C-141, but to also fulfill some of the duties of the C-5 Galaxy, freeing the C-5 fleet for larger outsize cargo.
Development continued until December 1985 when a full-scale production contract was signed for 210 aircraft. Development problems and limited funding caused delays in the late 1980s. Questions were also raised about more cost-effective alternatives during this time. In April 1990, Defense Secretary Richard Cheney reduced the order from 210 to 120 aircraft. The C-17's maiden flight was on September 15, 1991 from the McDonnell Douglas west coast plant in Long Beach, California, about a year behind schedule. This aircraft (T-1) and five more production models (P1-P5) participated in extensive flight testing and evaluation at Edwards AFB. In late 1993, the DoD gave the contractor two years to solve production and cost overrun problems or face termination of the contract after the delivery of the fortieth aircraft. By accepting the 1993 terms, McDonnell Douglas incurred a loss of nearly US$1.5 billion on the development phase of the program.
In April 1994, the C-17 program was still experiencing cost overruns, and did not meet weight, fuel burn, payload and range specifications. Airflow issues caused problems with parachutes and there were various other technical problems with mission software, landing gear, etc. A July 1994 GAO document revealed that to justify investing in the C-17 rather than in the C-5, Air Force and DoD studies from 1986 and 1991 had claimed that the C-17 could use 6,400 more runways (outside the US) than the C-5. It was later discovered that this study had only considered the runway dimensions, but not their strength or Load Classification Numbers (LCN). The C-5 has a lower LCN than the C-17, although the US Air Force places both in the same broad Load Classification Group (LCG). When considering runway dimensions and their load ratings, the C-17's worldwide runway advantage over the C-5 shrank from 6,400 to 911 airfields. However, the C-17's ability to use lower quality, austere airfields was not considered.
A January 1995 GAO report revealed that while the original C-17 budget was US$41.8 billion for 210 aircraft, the 120 aircraft already ordered at that point had already cost US$39.5 billion. In March 1994, the U.S. Army had decided it no longer needed the 60,000 lb (27,000 kg) Low Altitude Parachute Extraction System (LAPES) delivery that the C-17 was supposed to provide, feeling that the 42,000 lb (19,000 kg) capability of the C-130 Hercules was sufficient. It was decided not to conduct C-17 LAPES training beyond the testing of a 42,000 lb (19,000 kg) LAPES delivery. There were still airflow problems making it impossible for the C-17 to meet its original airdrop requirements. A February 1997 GAO Report revealed that a C-17 with a full payload could not land on 3,000 feet (900 m) wet runways, for simulations suggested 5,000 ft (1,500 m) was required.
By the mid-1990s, most of the problems had been resolved. The first C-17 squadron was declared operational by the U.S. Air Force in January 1995. In 1996, DoD ordered another 80 aircraft for a total of 120. In 1997 McDonnell Douglas merged with its former competitor, Boeing. In 1998, the order was increased to 134 units and in August 2002 to 180.
In July 2006, C-17A production was planned to end in 2009 unless Boeing received a follow-on order in sufficient time to allow the production pipeline to remain in operation. If such an order is placed, Boeing would begin C-17B production in 2010. The proposed C-17B would be capable of landing on sandy beaches and other areas off-limits to the C-17A.
On August 18, 2006 Boeing announced it was telling suppliers to stop work on parts for uncommitted C-17s. This move is the first step in shutting down production if no new plane orders were received from the US Government. However, just one month later on September 21, a House and Senate conference committee approved a US$447 billion defense bill for 2007, that includes US$2.1 billion for 10 additional C-17s – which is seven more planes than either chamber originally approved in separate versions of their funding language. The additional purchase follows intense lobbying by Boeing, as well as by California state leaders (where the plane is manufactured), and Missouri leaders, where Boeing's defense business is based. However, this extends the life of the program for only one additional year, to 2010.
On March 2, 2007, Boeing announced the C-17 production line may end in mid-2009 due to the lack of additional US government and international orders.
A total of 190 C-17s are contracted for delivery to the USAF as of October 24, 2007. Efforts are underway to add a further 10 C-17s to a funding/supplemental bill so that production may be extended to 2010 and to allow for further potential FMS purchases to take effect.
In recent years the size and weight of U.S. mechanized firepower and equipment have grown, which has significantly increased air mobility requirements, particularly in the area of large or heavy outsize cargo. The C-17 can airlift such cargo close to a potential battle area.
The C-17 is powered by four fully reversible, F117-PW-100 turbofan engines (the Department of Defense designation for the commercial Pratt and Whitney PW2040, currently used on the Boeing 757). Each engine is rated at 40,400 lbf (180 kN) of thrust. The thrust reversers direct the flow of air upward and forward. This reduces the probability of foreign object damage and provides reverse thrust capable of backing the aircraft. Additionally, the C-17's thrust reversers can be used in flight at idle-reverse for added drag in maximum-rate descents.
The aircraft requires a crew of three (pilot, copilot, and loadmaster) for cargo operations. Cargo is loaded through a large aft door that accommodates both rolling stock (vehicles, trailers, etc.) and palletized cargo. The cargo floor has rollers (used for palletized cargo) that can be flipped to provide a flat floor suitable for rolling stock. One of the larger pieces of rolling stock that this aircraft can carry is the 70-ton M1 Abrams tank.
Maximum payload capacity of the C-17 is 170,900 lb (77,500 kg), and its maximum gross takeoff weight is 585,000 lb (265,350 kg). With a payload of 160,000 lb (72,600 kg) and an initial cruise altitude of 28,000 ft (8,500 m), the C-17 has an unrefueled range of approximately 2,400 nautical miles (4,400 km) on the first 71 units, and 2,800 nautical miles (5,200 km) on all subsequent units, which are extended-range models using the sealed center wing bay as a fuel tank. These units are informally referred to by Boeing as the C-17 ER. The C-17 cruise speed is approximately 450 knots (833 km/h) (0.76 Mach). The C-17 is designed to airdrop 102 paratroopers and equipment.
The C-17 is designed to operate from runways as short as 3,500 ft (1,064 m) and as narrow as 90 ft (27 m). In addition, the C-17 can operate out of unpaved, unimproved runways (although there is the increased possibility of damage to the aircraft). The thrust reversers can be used to back the aircraft and reverse direction on narrow taxiways using a three-point (or in some cases, multi-point) turn maneuver.
Boeing has actively marketed the C-17 to many European nations including Belgium, Germany, France, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom. Of these, the UK was always seen as the most likely customer given its increasingly expeditionary military strategy and global commitments. The Royal Air Force has established an aim of having interoperability and some weapons and capabilities commonality with the United States Air Force. The UK's 1998 Strategic Defence Review identified a requirement for a strategic airlifter. The Short-Term Strategic Airlift (STSA) competition commenced in September of that year, however tendering was canceled in August 1999 with some bids identified by ministers as too expensive (including the Boeing/BAe C-17 bid) and others unsuitable. The project continued, with the C-17 seen as the favorite. The UK Defence Secretary, Geoff Hoon, announced in May 2000 that the RAF would lease four C-17s at an annual cost of £100 million from Boeing for an initial seven years with an optional two year extension. At this point the RAF would have the option to buy the aircraft or return them to Boeing. The UK committed to upgrading the C-17s in line with the USAF so that in the event of them being returned to Boeing the USAF could adopt them.
The first C-17 was delivered to the RAF at Boeing's Long Beach facility on May 17, 2001 and flown to RAF Brize Norton by a crew from No. 99 Squadron which had previously trained with USAF crews to gain competence on the type. The RAF's fourth C-17 was delivered on August 24, 2001. The RAF aircraft were some of the first to take advantage of the new center wing fuel tank.
The RAF declared itself delighted with the C-17 and reports began to emerge that they wished to retain the aircraft regardless of the A400M's progress. Although the C-17 fleet was to be a fallback for the A400M, the UK announced on July 21, 2004 that they have elected to buy their four C-17s at the end of the lease, even though the A400M is moving towards production. They will also be placing a follow-on order for one aircraft, though there may be additional purchases later. While the A400M is described as a "strategic" airlifter, the C-17 gives the RAF true strategic capabilities that it would not wish to lose, for example a maximum payload of 77,000 kg compared to the Airbus' 37,000 kg.
The Ministry of Defence (MoD) announced on August 4, 2006 that they had ordered an additional C-17 and that the four aircraft on lease will be purchased at the end of the current contract in 2008. The fifth aircraft was delivered on February 22, 2008. Due to fears that the A400M may suffer further delays, the MoD is planning to acquire three more C-17s (for a total of eight) for delivery in 2009-2010, provided that the U.S. Air Force places a follow-on order extending through the same time period. On July 26, 2007, Defence Secretary Des Browne announced that the MoD intends to order a sixth C-17 to boost operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. On December 3, 2007, the MoD announced a contract with Boeing for a sixth C-17 to be delivered in mid-2008.
In RAF service the C-17 has not been given an official designation (e.g. C-130J referred to as Hercules C4 or C5) due to its leased status, but is referred to simply as the C-17. Following the end of the lease period the four aircraft will assume an RAF designation, most likely "Globemaster C1".
Boeing 777
March 6th, 2008
Singapore Airlines is the largest operator of the Boeing 777 family with 69 in service (46 are the 777-200ER variant, 12 are 777-300s, and 11 are 777-300ERs with 8 on firm order and 13 more on option). As of February 2008, 53 customers have placed orders totaling 1,050 777s.
Direct market competitors to the 777 are the Airbus A330-300, A340, and some models of the A350 XWB, which is currently under development. The 777 may eventually be replaced by a new product family, the Y3, which would draw upon technologies from the 787. The Y3 may also replace the 747 series.
In the 1970s, Boeing unveiled new models: the twin-engine 757 to replace the venerable 727, the twin-engine 767 to challenge the Airbus A300, and a trijet 777 concept to compete with the DC-10 and the Lockheed L-1011 TriStar. Based on a re-winged 767 design, the 275 seat 777 was to be offered in two variants: a 2,700 nautical miles (5,000 km) transcontinental and an 4,320 nmi (8,000 km) intercontinental.
The twinjets were a big success, due in part to the 1980s ETOPS regulations. However the trijet 777 was cancelled (much like the trijet concept of the Boeing 757) in part because of the complexities of a trijet design and the absence of a 40,000 lbf (178 kN) engine. The cancellation left Boeing with a huge size and range gap in its product line between the 767-300ER and the 747-400. The DC-10 and L-1011, which entered service in early 1970s, were also due for replacement. In the meantime, Airbus developed the A340 to fulfill that requirement and to compete with Boeing.
The 777 included substantial international content, to be exceeded only by the 787. International contributors included Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and Kawasaki Heavy Industries (fuselage panels), Fuji Heavy Industries, Ltd. (center wing section), Hawker De Havilland (elevators), ASTA (rudder) and Ilyushin (jointly designed overhead baggage compartment).
On April 9, 1994 the first 777, WA001, was rolled out in a series of fifteen ceremonies held during the day to accommodate the 100,000 invited guests. First flight took place on June 14, 1994, piloted by 777 Chief Test Pilot John E. Cashman, marking the start of an eleven month flight test program more extensive than that seen on any previous Boeing model.
On May 15, 1995 Boeing delivered the first 777, aircraft WA006, to United Airlines. The FAA awarded 180 minute ETOPS clearance ("ETOPS-180") for PW4074 engined 777-200s on May 30, 1995, making the 777 the first aircraft to carry an ETOPS-180 rating at its entry into service. The 777's first commercial flight took place on June 7, 1995 from London's Heathrow Airport to Washington Dulles International Airport. The development, testing, and delivery of the 777 was the subject of the documentary series, "21st century Jet: The Building of the 777."
Due to rising fuel costs, airlines began looking at the Boeing 777 as a fuel-efficient alternative compared to other widebody jets. With modern engines, having extremely low failure rates (as seen in the ETOPS certification of most twinjets) and increased power output, four engines are no longer necessary except for very large aircraft such as the Airbus A380 or Boeing 747.
Singapore Airlines is the largest operator of the Boeing 777 family with 68 in service, of which 46 are of the 777-200ER variant, 12 are 777-300s and 10 are 777-300ERs. Another 9 777-300ERs are on firm order, with 13 more on option. Although Singapore Airlines is the largest customer, Emirates Airline is set to become the largest customer of the Boeing 777 when it will have 95 Boeing 777s in its fleet by 2010, in which 54 will be 777-300ERs. At the moment, Emirates Airline has 53 Boeing 777s in their fleet, of which 31 are Boeing 777-300ERs (with 23 on order), 12 Boeing 777-300s, 1 Boeing 777-200LR, 6 Boeing 777-200ERs, and 3 Boeing 777-200s.
Boeing uses two characteristics to define their 777 models. The first is the fuselage size, which affects the number of passengers and amount of cargo that can be carried. The 777-200 and derivatives are the base size. A few years later, the aircraft was stretched into the 777-300.
The second characteristic is range. Boeing defined these three segments:
A market: 3,900 to 5,200 nautical miles (7,223 to 9,630 km) B market: 5,800 to 7,700 nautical miles (10,742 to 14,260 km) C market: 8,000 nautical miles (14,816 km) and greater These markets are also used to compare the 777 to its competitor, the Airbus A340.
When referring to variants of the 777, Boeing and the airlines often collapse the model (777) and the capacity designator (200 or 300) into a smaller form, either 772 or 773. Subsequent to that they may or may not append the range identifier. So the base 777-200 may be referred to as a "772" or "772A", while a 777-300ER would be referred to as a "773ER", "773B" or "77W". Any of these notations may be found in aircraft manuals or airline timetables.
Originally known as the 777-200IGW (for "increased gross weight"), the longer-range B market 777-200ER (772B) features additional fuel capacity, with increased MTOW range from 580,000 to 631,000 pounds (263 to 286 tonnes) and range capability between 6,000 and 7,700 nautical miles (11,000 to 14,260 km). ER stands for Extended Range. The first 777-200ER was delivered to British Airways in February 1997, who also were the first carrier to launch, in 2001, a 10 abreast economy configuration in this airframe, which had originally been designed for a maximum 9 abreast configuration.
The 777-200ER can be powered by any two of a number of engines: the 84,000 lbf (374 kN) Pratt & Whitney PW4084 or Rolls-Royce Trent 884, the 85,000 lbf (378 kN) GE90-85B, the 90,000 lbf (400 kN) PW4090, GE90-90B1, or Trent 890, or the 92,000 lbf (409 kN) GE90-92B or Trent 892. In 1998 Air France took delivery of a 777-200ER powered by GE90-94B engines capable of 94,000 lbf (418 kN) thrust. The Rolls Royce Trent 800 is the leading engine for the 777 with a total market share of 43%. The engine is used on the majority of 777-200s, ERs and 300s but is not offered for the 200LR and 300ER.
On March, 1997, China Southern Airlines made history by flying the 1st Boeing 777 scheduled transpacific route, which was the flagship Guangzhou-Los Angeles route. On April 2, 1997, a Boeing 777-200ER, tail registration 9M-MRA (dubbed the "Super Ranger") of Malaysia Airlines, broke the Great Circle Distance Without Landing record for an airliner by flying east (the long way) from Boeing Field, Seattle, to Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, a distance of 20,044 km (10,823 nmi), in 21 hours, 23 minutes, more than a scheduled range of B777-200LR. The flight was non-revenue with no passengers on board. The plane is also recognized for another feat; the longest ETOPS-related emergency flight diversion (192 minutes under one engine power) was conducted on a United Airlines' Boeing 777-200ER carrying 255 passengers on March 17, 2003 over the southern Pacific Oceanâ€â€not without causing regulatory consternation.
The direct equivalents to the 777-200ER from Airbus are the Airbus A340-300 and the proposed A350-900.
As of August 2007, a total of 397 Boeing 777-200ER aircraft were in airline service, with 34 further firm orders.
The 777 Freighter (777F) is an all-cargo version of the 777-200 which is expected to enter service in late 2008. It amalgamates features from the 777-200LR and the 777-300ER, using the -200LR's structural upgrades and 110,000 lbf (489 kN) GE90-110B1 engines, combined with the fuel tanks and undercarriage of the -300ER.
With a maximum payload of 103 tons, the 777F's capacity will be similar to the 112 tons of the 747-400F, with a nearly identical payload density. As Boeing's forthcoming 747-8 will offer greater payload than the -400F, Boeing is targeting the 777F as a replacement for older 747F and MD-11F freighters. It was launched on May 23, 2005.
The 777F promises improved operating economics compared to existing 100+ ton payload freighters. With the same fuel capacity as the 777-300ER, the 777F will have a range of 4,895 nmi (9,065 km) at maximum payload, although greater range will be possible if less weight is carried. For example, parcel and other carriers which are more concerned with volume than weight will be able to make non-stop trans-Pacific flights.
Airbus currently has no comparable aircraft but is developing two models with similar specifications to the 777F. The A330-200F will carry less payload but is a smaller and a cheaper alternative. With a capacity of around 90 tons the proposed A350-900F will be a more capable competitor, although slightly smaller than the 777F. The MD-11F is another comparable aircraft but with less range than the 777F. When the 777F enters service in 2008, it is expected to be the longest-range freighter in the world. The 747-400ERF can carry more cargo and travel farther than the 777F, but the 747-8F replacing it will have less range than the 747-400ERF in the interest of more payload.
On November 7, 2006, FedEx Express canceled its order of ten Airbus A380-800Fs, citing the delays in delivery. FedEx Express said it would buy 15 777Fs instead, with an option to purchase 15 additional 777Fs. FedEx's CEO stated that "the availability and delivery timing of this aircraft, coupled with its attractive payload range and economics, make this choice the best decision for FedEx."
Air Canada and Air France-KLM have signed on as the 777F launch customers. The order for seven aircraft, (five for Air France and two for Air Canada) is worth US$1.5 billion at list prices, and the first delivery will be in 2008. In August 2007, there were firm orders for a total of 54 777 Freighters from 7 airlines.
Incidents
As of February 2008, a total of six incidents involving 777s had occurred, resulting in no fatalities among passengers or crew.
The only known fatality involving a Boeing 777 occurred in a refueling fire at Denver International Airport on September 5, 2001, during which a ground worker sustained fatal burns. Although the aircraft's wings were badly scorched, it was repaired and put back into service with British Airways. On October 18, 2002, An Air France Boeing 777-200 on route from Paris to Los Angeles made an emergency landing in Churchill, Manitoba when a small fire broke out by the front left windshield in the cockpit. Interestingly, passengers in rows 42-44 were the first to notice the odor and alert the flight crew. The aircraft dumped fuel over Hudson Bay before landing at Churchill. Because Churchill's airport does not regularly handle aircraft the size of a 777-200 the passengers deplaned using the slides. On August 24, 2004, A Singapore Airlines Boeing 777-312 had an engine explosion on takeoff at Melbourne Airport. This was due to erosion of the high pressure compression liners in the Rolls-Royce engines. On March 1, 2005, after a PIA Boeing 777-200ER landed at Manchester International Airport, UK, fire was seen around the left main landing gear. The crew and passengers were evacuated and fire was extinguished. Some passengers suffered minor injuries and the aircraft sustained minor damage. On August 1, 2005, Malaysia Airlines Flight 124, a 777-200ER had instruments showing conflicting reports of low airspeed on climb-out from Perth, Western Australia en route to Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, then overspeed and stalling. The plane started to pitch up at 41,000 feet, and the pilots disconnected the autopilot and made an emergency landing at Perth. No one was injured. Subsequent examination revealed that one of the aircraft's several accelerometers had failed some years before, and another at the time of the incident. On January 17, 2008, British Airways Flight 38, a 777-200ER flying from Beijing to London, crash-landed approximately 1,000 feet (300 m) short of London Heathrow Airport's runway 27L, and slid onto the runway's threshold. This resulted in damage to the landing gear, wing roots and the engines resulting in the first hull loss being declared for the type. The initial report from the Air Accidents Investigation Branch stated that the Rolls-Royce Trent 895 engines repeatedly failed to respond to commands for more thrust from both the autothrottle system and from manual intervention, beginning when the aircraft was at an altitude of 600 feet (180 m) and 2 miles (3.2 km) from touchdown. An adequate fuel quantity was on board the aircraft and the autothrottle and engine control commands were performing as expected prior to, and after, the reduction in thrust.
